Inertia of energy and radiation
James Clerk Maxwell James Clerk Maxwell was a Scottish theoretical physicist and mathematician. His most significant achievement was the development of the classical electromagnetic theory, synthesizing all previous unrelated observations, experiments and equations of electricity, magnetism and even optics into a consistent theory. His set of equations—Maxwell's (1874) and Adolfo Bartoli Adolfo Bartoli was an italian physicist, who is most well known for the theoretical prediction of the existence of radiation pressure (1876) found out that the existence of tensions in the ether like the radiation pressure Radiation pressure is the pressure exerted upon any surface exposed to electromagnetic radiation. If absorbed, the pressure is the power flux density divided by the speed of light. If the radiation is totally reflected, the radiation pressure is doubled. For example, the radiation of the Sun at the Earth has a power flux density of 1,370 W/m2, so follows from the electromagnetic theory. However, Lorentz (1895) recognized that this led to a conflict between the action/reaction principle and Lorentz's ether theory What is now called Lorentz Ether theory has its roots in Hendrik Lorentz's "Theory of electrons", which was the final point in the development of the classical aether theories at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century. An extension of the theory was developed in particular by Henri Poincaré, who coined the name &. [38][39][40]
- Poincaré
In 1900 Henri Poincaré Jules Henri Poincaré (French pronunciation: [ˈʒyl ɑ̃ˈʁi pwɛ̃kaˈʁe]) was a French mathematician and theoretical physicist, and a philosopher of science. Poincaré is often described as a polymath, and in mathematics as The Last Universalist, since he excelled in all fields of the discipline as it existed during his lifetime studied this conflict and tried to determine whether the center of gravity The center of mass of a system of particles is a specific point at which, for many purposes, the system's mass behaves as if it were concentrated. The center of mass is a function only of the positions and masses of the particles that compose the system. In the case of a rigid body, the position of its center of mass is fixed in relation to the still moves with a uniform velocity when electromagnetic fields are included.[30] He noticed that the action/reaction principle does not hold for matter alone, but that the electromagnetic field has its own momentum. The electromagnetic field energy behaves like a fictitious fluid A fluid is defined as a substance that continually deforms under an applied shear stress. All gases are fluids, but not all liquids are fluids. Fluids are a subset of the phases of matter and include liquids, gases, plasmas and, to some extent, plastic solids ("fluide fictif") with a mass density of E / c2 (in other words m = E/c2). If the center of mass frame A center of momentum frame of a system is any inertial frame in which the center of mass is at rest (has zero velocity). Note that the center of momentum of a system is not a location, but rather defines a particular inertial frame (a velocity and a direction). Thus "center of momentum" already means "center of momentum frame" is defined by both the mass of matter and the mass of the fictitious fluid, and if the fictitious fluid is indestructible - it is neither created or destroyed - then the motion of the center of mass frame remains uniform. But electromagnetic energy can be converted into other forms of energy. So Poincaré assumed that there exists a non-electric energy fluid at each point of space, into which electromagnetic energy can be transformed and which also carries a mass proportional to the energy. In this way, the motion of the center of mass remains uniform. Poincaré said that one should not be too surprised by these assumptions, since they are only mathematical fictions. [41]
But Poincaré's resolution led to a paradox when changing frames: if a Hertzian oscillator radiates in a certain direction, it will suffer a recoil Recoil is the 'kick' given by a gun when it is fired. In technical terms, this kick is caused by the gun's backward momentum, which exactly balances the forward momentum of the projectile. In most small arms, the momentum is transferred to the ground through the body of the shooter; while in heavier guns such as mounted machine guns or cannons, from the inertia of the fictitious fluid. In the framework of Lorentz ether theory What is now called Lorentz Ether theory has its roots in Hendrik Lorentz's "Theory of electrons", which was the final point in the development of the classical aether theories at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century. An extension of the theory was developed in particular by Henri Poincaré, who coined the name & Poincaré performed a Lorentz boost In physics, the Lorentz transformation converts between two different observers' measurements of space and time, where one observer is in uniform motion with respect to the other. In classical physics (Galilean relativity), the only conversion believed necessary was x' = x − vt, describing how the origin of one observer's coordinate system to the frame of the moving source. He noted that energy conservation holds in both frames, but that the law of conservation of momentum is violated. This would allow a perpetuum mobile The term perpetual motion, taken literally, refers to movement that goes on forever. However, the term more commonly refers to any device or system that perpetually produces more energy than it consumes, resulting in a net output of energy for indefinite time. The law of conservation of energy, which states that energy cannot be created or, a notion which he abhorred. The laws of nature would have to be different in the frames of reference, and the relativity principle would not hold. Poincaré's paradox was resolved[30] by Einstein's insight that a body losing energy as radiation or heat was losing a mass of the amount m = E / c2. The Hertzian oscillator loses mass in the emission process, and momentum is conserved in any frame. Einstein noted in 1906 that Poincaré's solution to the center of mass problem and his own were mathematically equivalent (see below).
Poincaré came back to this topic in "Science and Hypothesis" (1902) and "The Value of Science The Value of Science is a book by the French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher Henri Poincaré. It was published in 1905. The book deals with questions in the philosophy of science and adds detail to the topics addressed by Poincaré's previous book, Science and Hypothesis" (1905). This time he rejected the possibility that energy carries mass: "... [the recoil] is contrary to the principle of Newton since our projectile here has no mass, it is not matter, it is energy". He also discussed two other unexplained effects: (1) non-conservation of mass implied by Lorentz's variable mass γm, Abraham's theory of variable mass and Kaufmann Walter Kaufmann was a German physicist. He is most well-known for his first experimental proof of the velocity dependence of mass, which was an important contribution to the development of modern physics, including special relativity's experiments on the mass of fast moving electrons and (2) the non-conservation of energy in the radium experiments of Madame Curie Marie Skłodowska Curie was a physicist and chemist of Polish upbringing and, subsequently, French citizenship. She was a pioneer in the field of radioactivity, the first person honored with two Nobel Prizes, and the first female professor at the University of Paris. [42]
- Abraham and Hasenöhrl
Following Poincaré, Max Abraham in 1902 introduced the term "electromagnetic momentum" to maintain the action/reaction principle.[29] Poincaré's result was verified by him, whereby the field density of momentum per cm3 is E / c2 and E / c per cm2. [43]
In 1904, Friedrich Hasenöhrl Friedrich Hasenöhrl , was an Austro-Hungarian physicist specifically associated inertia with radiation in a paper, which was according to his own words very similar to some papers of Abraham.[29] Hasenöhrl suggested that part of the mass of a body (which he called apparent mass) can be thought of as radiation bouncing around a cavity. The apparent mass of radiation depends on the temperature (because every heated body emits radiation) and is proportional to its energy, and he first concluded that m = (8 / 3)E / c2. However, in 1905 Hasenöhrl published a summary of a letter, which was written by Abraham to him. Abraham concluded that Hasenöhrl's formula of the apparent mass of radiation is not correct, and based on his definition of electromagnetic momentum and longitudinal electromagnetic mass Abraham changed it to m = (4 / 3)E / c2, the same value for the electromagnetic mass for a body at rest. Hasenöhrl re-calculated his own derivation and verified Abraham's result. He also noticed the similarity between the apparent mass and the electromagnetic mass. However, Hasenöhrl stated that this energy-apparent-mass relation only holds as long a body radiates, i.e. if the temperature of a body is greater than 0 K The kelvin is a unit increment of temperature and is one of the seven SI base units. The Kelvin scale is a thermodynamic (absolute) temperature scale where absolute zero, the theoretical absence of all thermal energy, is zero (0 K). The Kelvin scale and the kelvin are named after the British physicist and engineer William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin. [44] [45]
However, Hasenöhrl did not include the pressure of the radiation on the cavity shell. If he had included the shell pressure and inertia as it would be included in the theory of relativity, the factor would have been equal to 1 or m = E / c2. This calculation assumes that the shell properties are consistent with relativity, otherwise the mechanical properties of the shell including the mass and tension would not have the same transformation laws as those for the radiation.[46] Nobel Prize The Nobel Prize is a Swedish prize, established in the 1895 will of Swedish chemist and inventor Alfred Nobel; it was first awarded in Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and Peace in 1901. An associated prize, The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, was instituted by Sweden's central bank in-winner and Hitler Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, abbreviated NSDAP), popularly known as the Nazi Party. He was the dictator of Germany from 1933 to 1945, serving as chancellor from 1933 to 1945 and as head of state (Führer und advisor Philipp Lenard Philipp Eduard Anton von Lénárd or Fülöp Lénárd was a Hungarian-German physicist and the winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1905 for his research on cathode rays and the discovery of many of their properties. He was also an active proponent of Nazi ideology claimed that the mass–energy equivalence formula needed to be credited to Hasenöhrl to make it an Aryan The Aryan race is a concept historically influential in European culture in the period of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It derives from the idea that the original speakers of the Indo-European languages and their descendants up to the present day constitute a distinctive race or subrace of the larger Caucasian race creation.[47]
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