References

  1. ^ As for the different meanings of the term mass, a precise definition is given below in the subsection Relativistic mass
  2. ^ a b c Einstein, A. (1905), "Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?", Annalen der Physik 18: 639–643, doi The Digital Object Identifier System is a managed system for persistent identification of content-related entities on digital networks . These entities may be content items (digital files, physical objects, abstract works), or any related entities in a content transaction (e.g. licenses, parties, etc.). "DOI" is sometimes used to mean:10.1002/andp.19053231314 . See also the English translation.
  3. ^ David Mermin (February 1984). "Relativity without light". American Journal of Physics 52(2): 119-124.
  4. ^ Trilochan Pradhan (2001). The Photon. Nova Publishers. p. 44. ISBN 1560729287. http://books.google.com/books?id=P2UTBEeHL9kC&pg=PA44.
  5. ^ Sergio M. Dutra (2004). Cavity quantum electrodynamics: the strange theory of light in a box. Wiley. p. 94. ISBN 0471443387. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZPCa9yM4QzIC&pg=PA94#PPA94,M1.
  6. ^ Daniel Treille (1997). "Boson masses in the standard model". in Maurice Lévy et al.. Masses of fundamental particles (North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Scientific Affairs Division ed.). Springer. p. 25. ISBN 030645694X. http://books.google.com/books?id=So1lDKrP-0IC&pg=PA25.
  7. ^ See this news report and links
  8. ^ a b S. Dürr, Z. Fodor, J. Frison, C. Hoelbling, R. Hoffmann, S. D. Katz, S. Krieg, T. Kurth, L. Lellouch, T. Lippert, K. K. Szabo, and G. Vulvert (21 November 2008). "Ab Initio Determination of Light Hadron Masses". Science 322 (5905): 1224. doi The Digital Object Identifier System is a managed system for persistent identification of content-related entities on digital networks . These entities may be content items (digital files, physical objects, abstract works), or any related entities in a content transaction (e.g. licenses, parties, etc.). "DOI" is sometimes used to mean:10.1126/science.1163233. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/data/322/5905/1224/DC1/1.
  9. ^ C. F. Perdrisat, V. Punjabi, M. Vanderhaeghen (2007). "Nucleon Electromagnetic Form Factors". Prog Part Nucl Phys 59: 694-764. http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0612014v2.
  10. ^ Sigfrido Boffi & Barbara Pasquini (2007). "Generalized parton distributions and the structure of the nucleon". Riv Nuovo Cim 30. http://arxiv.org/abs/0711.2625v2.
  11. ^ a b c Conversions used: 1956 International (Steam) Table (IT) values where one calorie ≡ 4.1868 J and one BTU ≡ 1055.05585262 J. Weapons designers’ conversion value of one gram TNT ≡ 1000 calories used.
  12. ^ The 6.2 kg core comprised 0.8% gallium by weight. Also, about 20% of the Gadget’s yield was due to fast fissioning in its natural uranium tamper. This resulted in 4.1 moles of Pu fissioning with 180 MeV per atom actually contributing prompt kinetic energy to the explosion. Note too that the term "Gadget"-style is used here instead of "Fat Man" because this general design of bomb was very rapidly upgraded to a more efficient one requiring only 5 kg of the Pu/gallium alloy.
  13. ^ Assuming the dam is generating at its peak capacity of 6,809 MW.
  14. ^ Assuming a 90/10 alloy of Pt/Ir by weight, a Cp of 25.9 for Pt and 25.1 for Ir, a Pt-dominated average Cp of 25.8, 5.134 moles of metal, and 132 J.K–1 for the prototype. A variation of ±1.5 picograms is of course, much smaller than the actual uncertainty in the mass of the international prototype, which is ±2 micrograms.
  15. ^ a b Earth’s gravitational self-energy is 4.6 × 10–10 that of Earth’s total mass, or 2.7 trillion metric tons. Citation: The Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-Ranging Operation (APOLLO), T. W. Murphy, Jr. et al. University of Washington, Dept. of Physics (132 kB PDF, here.).
  16. ^ There is usually more than one possible way to define a field energy, because any field can be made to couple to gravity in many different ways. By general scaling arguments In theoretical physics, renormalization group refers to a mathematical apparatus that allows one to investigate the changes of a physical system as one views it at different distance scales. In particle physics it reflects the changes in the underlying force laws as one varies the energy scale at which physical processes occur. A change in scale, the correct answer at everyday distances, which are long compared to the quantum gravity scale, should be minimal coupling, which means that no powers of the curvature tensor appear. Any non-minimal couplings, along with other higher order terms, are presumably only determined by a theory of quantum gravity Quantum gravity is the field of theoretical physics attempting to unify quantum mechanics with general relativity in a self-consistent manner, or more precisely, to formulate a self-consistent theory which reduces to ordinary quantum mechanics in the limit of weak gravity (potentials much less than c2) and which reduces to "classical", and within string theory String theory is a developing branch of theoretical physics that combines quantum mechanics and general relativity into a quantum theory of gravity. The strings of string theory are one-dimensional oscillating lines, but they are no longer considered fundamental to the theory, which can be formulated in points or surfaces too, they only start to contribute to experiments at the string scale.
  17. ^ G. 't Hooft, "Computation of the Effects Due to a Four Dimensional Pseudoparticle.", Physical Review D14:3432-3450.
  18. ^ A. Belavin, A. M. Polyakov, A. Schwarz, Yu. Tyupkin, "Pseudoparticle Solutions to Yang Mills Equations", Physics Letters 59B:85 (1975).
  19. ^ F. Klinkhammer, N. Manton Nicholas Stephen Manton is a mathematician at the University of Cambridge whose work has mostly concerned solitons in particle physics. He is perhaps best known for his paper on sphalerons and for his work on the interaction of BPS monopoles. He has also worked on skyrmions and, with Michael Atiyah, proposed a new class of approximate solutions, "A Saddle Point Solution in the Weinberg Salam Theory", Physical Review D 30:2212.
  20. ^ Rubakov V. A. "Monopole Catalysis of Proton Decay", Reports on Progress in Physics 51:189-241 (1988).
  21. ^ S.W. Hawking "Black Holes Explosions?" Nature 248:30 (1974).
  22. ^ Einstein, A. (1905), "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper." (PDF), Annalen der Physik 17: 891–921, doi The Digital Object Identifier System is a managed system for persistent identification of content-related entities on digital networks . These entities may be content items (digital files, physical objects, abstract works), or any related entities in a content transaction (e.g. licenses, parties, etc.). "DOI" is sometimes used to mean:10.1002/andp.19053221004, http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/papers/1905_17_891-921.pdf . English translation.
  23. ^ Einstein, A. (1906), "Über eine Methode zur Bestimmung des Verhältnisses der transversalen und longitudinalen Masse des Elektrons." (PDF), Annalen der Physik 21: 583–586, doi The Digital Object Identifier System is a managed system for persistent identification of content-related entities on digital networks . These entities may be content items (digital files, physical objects, abstract works), or any related entities in a content transaction (e.g. licenses, parties, etc.). "DOI" is sometimes used to mean:10.1002/andp.19063261310, http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/papers/1906_21_583-586.pdf .
  24. ^ See e.g. Lev B.Okun, The concept of Mass, Physics Today 42 (6), June 1969, p. 31-36, http://www.physicstoday.org/vol-42/iss-6/vol42no6p31_36.pdf
  25. ^ Max Jammer (1999). Concepts of mass in contemporary physics and philosophy. Princeton University Press. p. 51. ISBN 069101017X. http://books.google.com/books?id=jujK1bn4QUQC&pg=PA51.
  26. ^ Eriksen, Erik; Vøyenli, Kjell (1976). "The classical and relativistic concepts of mass". Foundations of Physics (Springer) 6: 115-124. doi The Digital Object Identifier System is a managed system for persistent identification of content-related entities on digital networks . These entities may be content items (digital files, physical objects, abstract works), or any related entities in a content transaction (e.g. licenses, parties, etc.). "DOI" is sometimes used to mean:10.1007/BF00708670.
  27. ^ a b c Jannsen, M., Mecklenburg, M. (2007), From classical to relativistic mechanics: Electromagnetic models of the electron., in V. F. Hendricks, et al., , Interactions: Mathematics, Physics and Philosophy (Dordrecht: Springer): 65–134, http://www.tc.umn.edu/~janss011/ .
  28. ^ a b Whittaker, E.T. (1951-1953), 2. Edition: A History of the theories of aether and electricity, vol. 1: The classical theories / vol. 2: The modern theories 1900-1926, London: Nelson .
  29. ^ a b c Miller, Arthur I. (1981), Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911), Reading: Addison–Wesley, ISBN 0-201-04679-2
  30. ^ a b c Darrigol, O. (2005), "The Genesis of the theory of relativity." (PDF), Séminaire Poincaré 1: 1–22, http://www.bourbaphy.fr/darrigol2.pdf .
  31. ^ Thomson, Joseph John (1881), "On the Effects produced by the Motion of Electrified Bodies", Philosophical Magazine, 5 11 (68): 229-249
  32. ^ Heaviside, Oliver (1889), "On the Electromagnetic Effects due to the Motion of Electrification through a Dielectric", Philosophical Magazine, 5 27 (167): 324-339
  33. ^ Searle, George Frederick Charles (1897), "On the Steady Motion of an Electrified Ellipsoid", Philosophical Magazine, 5 44 (269): 329-341
  34. ^ Abraham, Max (1903), "Prinzipien der Dynamik des Elektrons", Annalen der Physik 315 (1): 105–179, doi The Digital Object Identifier System is a managed system for persistent identification of content-related entities on digital networks . These entities may be content items (digital files, physical objects, abstract works), or any related entities in a content transaction (e.g. licenses, parties, etc.). "DOI" is sometimes used to mean:10.1002/andp.19023150105, http://www.weltderphysik.de/de/3001.php?bd=315
  35. ^ Wien, Wilhelm (1900), "Über die Möglichkeit einer elektromagnetischen Begründung der Mechanik", Annalen der Physik 310 (7): 501–513, doi The Digital Object Identifier System is a managed system for persistent identification of content-related entities on digital networks . These entities may be content items (digital files, physical objects, abstract works), or any related entities in a content transaction (e.g. licenses, parties, etc.). "DOI" is sometimes used to mean:10.1002/andp.19013100703
  36. ^ Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1904), "Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light", Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences 6: 809–831
  37. ^ Poincaré, Henri (1906), "Sur la dynamique de l'électron", Rendiconti del Circolo matematico di Palermo 21: 129–176, doi The Digital Object Identifier System is a managed system for persistent identification of content-related entities on digital networks . These entities may be content items (digital files, physical objects, abstract works), or any related entities in a content transaction (e.g. licenses, parties, etc.). "DOI" is sometimes used to mean:10.1007/BF03013466 See also the partial English translation.
  38. ^ Maxwell, J.C (1873), A Treatise on electricity and magnetism, Vol. 2., § 792, London: Macmillan & Co., pp. 391, http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k95176j .
  39. ^ Bartoli, A. (1876), "Il calorico raggiante e il secondo principio di termodynamica." (PDF), Nuovo Cimento (1884) 15: 196–202, http://fisicavolta.unipv.it/percorsi/pdf/press.pdf .
  40. ^ Lorentz, H.A. (1895), Versuch einer theorie der electrischen und optischen erscheinungen in bewegten Kõrpern., Leiden: E.J. Brill .
  41. ^ Poincaré, Henri (1900), "La théorie de Lorentz et le principe de réaction", Archives néerlandaises des sciences exactes et naturelles 5: 252–278 . See also the English translation.
  42. ^ Poincaré, Henri (1904/1906), "The Principles of Mathematical Physics", in Rogers, Howard J., Congress of arts and science, universal exposition, St. Louis, 1904, 1, Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, pp. 604–622
  43. ^ Abraham, M. (1903), "Prinzipien der Dynamik des Elektrons." (PDF), Annalen der Physik 10: 105–179, http://www.weltderphysik.de/intern/upload/annalen_der_physik/1903/Band_315_105.pdf .
  44. ^ Hasenöhrl, Friedrich (1904), "Zur Theorie der Strahlung in bewegten Körpern", Annalen der Physik 320 (12): 344–370
  45. ^ Hasenöhrl, Friedrich (1905), "Zur Theorie der Strahlung in bewegten Körpern. Berichtigung", Annalen der Physik 321 (3): 589–592
  46. ^ a b MathPages: Who Invented Relativity?
  47. ^ Christian Schlatter: Philipp Lenard et la physique aryenne.
  48. ^ Einstein, A. (1906), "Das Prinzip von der Erhaltung der Schwerpunktsbewegung und die Trägheit der Energie" (PDF), Annalen der Physik 20: 627–633, doi The Digital Object Identifier System is a managed system for persistent identification of content-related entities on digital networks . These entities may be content items (digital files, physical objects, abstract works), or any related entities in a content transaction (e.g. licenses, parties, etc.). "DOI" is sometimes used to mean:10.1002/andp.19063250814, http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/papers/1906_20_627-633.pdf .
  49. ^ Einstein 1906: Trotzdem die einfachen formalen Betrachtungen, die zum Nachweis dieser Behauptung durchgeführt werden müssen, in der Hauptsache bereits in einer Arbeit von H. Poincaré enthalten sind2, werde ich mich doch der Übersichtlichkeit halber nicht auf jene Arbeit stützen.
  50. ^ Helge Kragh, "Fin-de-Siècle Physics: A World Picture in Flux" in Quantum Generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999.
  51. ^ Preston, S. T., Physics of the Ether, E. & F. N. Spon, London, (1875).
  52. ^ Bjerknes: S. Tolver Preston's Explosive Idea E = mc2.
  53. ^ De Pretto, O. Reale Instituto Veneto Di Scienze, Lettere Ed Arti, LXIII, II,439-500, reprinted in Bartocci.
  54. ^ Umberto Bartocci, Albert Einstein e Olinto De Pretto - La vera storia della formula più famosa del mondo, editore Andromeda, Bologna, 1999.
  55. ^ mathsyear2000.
  56. ^ Prentiss, J.J. (August 2005). "Why is the energy of motion proportional to the square of the velocity?". American Journal of Physics 73 no 8: 705. .
  57. ^ John Worrall, review of the book Conceptions of Ether. Studies in the History of Ether Theories by Cantor and Hodges, The British Journal of the Philosophy of Science vol 36, no 1, Mar 1985, p. 84. The article contrasts a particle ether with a wave-carrying ether, the latter was acceptable.
  58. ^ Le Bon: The Evolution of Forces.
  59. ^ Bizouard: Poincaré E = mc2 l’équation de Poincaré, Einstein et Planck.
  60. ^ Rutherford, Ernest (1904). Radioactivity. Cambridge: University Press. pp. 336–338. http://www.archive.org/details/radioactivity00ruthrich.
  61. ^ Heisenberg, Werner (1958). Physics And Philosophy: The Revolution In Modern Science. New York: Harper & Brothers. pp. 118–119. http://www.archive.org/details/physicsandphilos010613mbp.
  62. ^ Cover. Time magazine, July 1, 1946.
  63. ^ Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe.
  64. ^ Robert Serber, The Los Alamos Primer: The First Lectures on How to Build an Atomic Bomb (University of California Press, 1992), page 7. Note that the quotation is taken from Serber's 1992 version, and is not in the original 1943 Los Alamos Primer The Los Alamos Primer was a printed version of the first five lectures on the principles of nuclear weapons given to new arrivals at the top-secret Los Alamos laboratory during the Manhattan Project. They were originally given by the physicist Robert Serber after being delivered in person on April 5-14, 1943, based on conclusions reached at a of the same name.
  65. ^ David Bodanis, E = mc2: A Biography of the World's Most Famous Equation (New York: Walker, 2000).
  66. ^ http://homepage.mac.com/dtrapp/people/Meitnerium.html A quote from Frisch about the discovery day. Accesssed April 4, 2009.

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